Despite plenty of evidence for the “cognitive biases” from which all decision-makers suffer, an astounding number of managerial decisions is still based on gut feelings rather than solid analysis. Among the many reasons for this may be a certain level of apprehension about the complexity of quantitative analysis and the methods it entails.
We believe that quantitative analysis should not remain the elusive domain of certain managerial disciplines that naturally revolve around numbers (e.g. finance) nor of a secretive clan of “geeks” who huddle over spreadsheets all day long. On the contrary, basic principles of quantitative analysis should be part of the toolbox of every manager. We make it a point to include them in our curriculum and to teach them in a non-threatening way that focuses on application rather than abstract statistical theory. Let’s take a look at some basic concepts….
Descriptive statistics – a number may say more than a thousand words
The starting point for quantitative analysis is often very simple. It begins with what we call “descriptive” statistics. The most popular descriptive statistic is the mean, with which everyone should be well familiar. However, when data have a substantial number of extreme values (which statisticians call “outliers”) then the median might give a better idea of where the “middle” of the data is located. For example, when official statistics report on salaries or household incomes for a particular job, profession or country, they will often refer to “median salaries” or “median household income”, which is an effective way of neutralizing the disproportional influence of extreme salaries or incomes.
In addition, it may be useful to master some basic statistics that indicate how much variability is in your data. The so-called “standard deviation” is the most popular measure in this respect. Computing these statistics, for instance in Excel, is child’s play, and if you master them, you can describe the shape of your data with only one or two numbers that will tell a good story.
Inferential statistics – how to learn from (relatively) small samples about (potentially very) large populations
While “descriptive” statistics are an interesting starting point, the type of statistics that we label as “inferential” are infinitely more powerful. The basic intuition behind them is straightforward. Let’s assume that you would like to know something about a very large population, for instance, how much the citizens of a particular country spend on average on their vacations every year. Gaining precise information about this “population mean” will be impossible for purely practical reasons. You will never have the time and the resources to collect these data for every single person or household in a given country. This is where inferential statistics come into play. They allow you to use data from a relatively small “sample” (often not more than a couple of hundred observations) to draw astonishingly precise conclusions about the general population behind this sample. The appeal of this approach should be intuitively clear to every manager as the process saves both time and money. There is a great number of techniques that can be subsumed under the umbrella of “inferential statistics”. Below I will outline some basic applications.
Confidence intervals
Very often we would like to know something about a mean in a population (for instance, the average spending on fast food per year) or about a proportion in a population (for instance, the proportion of individuals who consider buying an electric vehicle or voting for a political candidate). In this case we could, of course, simply compute the mean or the proportion in our sample and take this as the best bet for the population. There is a more sophisticated method, however, and that is the confidence interval. A confidence interval allows us to say that with a particular probability (frequently we choose 95%) the value for the mean or the proportion will lie in a specific range. With relatively small samples the range we can determine will often be remarkably narrow and precise. The advantage of the confidence interval is that in addition to giving an indication of where the population mean or proportion should lie, we also indicate how much uncertainty surrounds our estimate.
Tests for differences in means and proportions
Another practical problem we often face is that we would like to know whether means or proportions are different across two or more populations. To take a practical example, we might be asking ourselves whether the average salaries for a given position differ between company A and company B. Or we might wonder whether passengers’ average assessment of cabin comfort differs across five different types of aircraft. In all of these situations, we can use samples to run statistical tests which will allow us to determine whether there is what we call a “significant” difference between the populations we are looking at. Again, once you understand how to interpret the results of these tests, which in and by itself is not overly complicated, running them on programs like Excel or more advanced software for statistical analysis is very simple and not time-consuming at all.
Exploring relationships with correlational techniques
Last but not least, the potentially most interesting questions that we can ask ourselves concern the issue of whether two or more variables are related to each other. For instance, is a particular leadership style related to higher employee performance? Is affiliation with a chain related to operating performance? Or is proactive service behavior related to guest satisfaction? Questions of these types can be tackled with so-called “correlational” techniques, including correlation and regression analysis, allowing for really interesting and practically relevant insights.
Conclusion
Beyond the methods outlined above, research methods specialists have obviously developed an almost unlimited array of more complex methods for more and more complex problems. But we at EHL believe that the key point here is not to turn you into “stats nerds”. In a world where apprehension about quantitative methods is widespread, the good news is that mastery of a small number of basic techniques can quickly propel you to the top of the heap and give you a competitive advantage. And even if you do not apply these methods in your daily lives, understanding them may help you decode numerical results that are communicated to you, ask informed questions and develop a feeling for numbers that are reliable vs. those that have been “tortured”.
ADVERTISEMENT:
Hello, para pengemar slots pernahkah denger semboyan “raja slot? Kalau tidak, siap-siap jatuh hati sama program ini. raja slot adalah mesin slot yang sering kasih kemenangan. Ya, slot-slot ini bisa disebut adalah andalannya tuk membawa pulang cuan. any way, cemana sih caranya jumpain slot gaco yang tepat? Tenang Bro and Sis, kita bahas santai aja di sini
Game tergacor saat ini satu-satunya di Indonesia yaitu pasti menyediakan return on Investment terbaik
Daftar hanya di :
Informasi mengenai KING SLOT, Segera Daftar Bersama king selot terbaik dan terpercaya no satu di Indonesia. Boleh mendaftar melalui sini king slot serta memberikan hasil kembali yang paling tinggi saat sekarang ini hanyalah KING SLOT atau Raja slot paling gacor, gilak dan gaco saat sekarang di Indonesia melalui program return tinggi di kingselot serta pg king slot
slot demo gacor
slot demo gacor permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama kdwapp.com
akun demo slot gacor
akun demo slot gacor permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama kdwapp.com
akun slot demo gacor
akun slot demo gacor permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama kdwapp.com
akun demo slot pragmatic
akun demo slot pragmatic permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama kdwapp.com
akun slot demo pragmatic
akun slot demo pragmatic permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama kdwapp.com
akun slot demo
akun slot demo permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama kdwapp.com
akun demo slot
akun demo slot permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama kdwapp.com
slot demo gacor
slot demo gacor permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama jebswagstore.com
akun demo slot gacor
akun demo slot gacor permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama jebswagstore.com
akun slot demo gacor
akun slot demo gacor permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama jebswagstore.com
akun demo slot pragmatic
akun demo slot pragmatic permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama jebswagstore.com
akun slot demo pragmatic
akun slot demo pragmatic permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama jebswagstore.com
akun slot demo
akun slot demo permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama jebswagstore.com
akun demo slot
akun demo slot permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama jebswagstore.com
slot demo gacor
slot demo gacor permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama demoslotgacor.pro
akun demo slot gacor
akun demo slot gacor permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama demoslotgacor.pro
akun slot demo gacor
akun slot demo gacor permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama demoslotgacor.pro
akun demo slot pragmatic
akun demo slot pragmatic permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama demoslotgacor.pro
akun slot demo pragmatic
akun slot demo pragmatic permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama demoslotgacor.pro
akun slot demo
akun slot demo permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama demoslotgacor.pro
akun demo slot
akun demo slot permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama demoslotgacor.pro
slot demo gacor
slot demo gacor permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama situsslotterbaru.net
akun demo slot gacor
akun demo slot gacor permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama situsslotterbaru.net
akun slot demo gacor
akun slot demo gacor permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama situsslotterbaru.net
akun demo slot pragmatic
akun demo slot pragmatic permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama situsslotterbaru.net
akun slot demo pragmatic
akun slot demo pragmatic permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama situsslotterbaru.net
akun slot demo
akun slot demo permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama situsslotterbaru.net
akun demo slot
akun demo slot permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama situsslotterbaru.net
situs slot terbaru
situs slot terbaru permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama situsslotterbaru.net
slot terbaru
slot terbaru permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama situsslotterbaru.net
merek 88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama merek88.net
merek 88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama merek88.com
mantan99 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama mantan99.asia
mantan88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama mantan88.asia
maksimal88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama maksimal88.biz
maksimal88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama maksimal88.asia
liburan88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama liburan88.com
indodax88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama indodax88.org
indah99 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama indah99.asia
indah88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama indah88.asia
ikn88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama ikn88.asia
ibukota88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama ibukota88.com
huawei88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama huawei88.asia
hot888 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama hot888.asia
hot88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama hot88.sale
dingin88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama dingin88.net
citra88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama citra88.asia
binance88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama binance88.net
best99 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama best99.info
best88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama best88.asia
tradisional 88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama tradisional88.net
tradisional 88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama tradisional88.com
tombol88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama tombol88.org
tombol88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama tombol88.net
survey88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama survey88.net
survey88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama survey88.com
start88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama start88.org
start88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama start88.asia
obatkuat88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama obatkuat88.net
obatkuat88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama obatkuat88.com
mcb88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama mcb88.info
mcb88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama mcb88.asia
master99 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama master99.biz
master888 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama master888.asia
master88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama master88.asia
live88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama live88.bio
live88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama live88.asia
libra88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama libra88.net
kompresor88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama kompresor88.net
kompresor88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama kompresor88.com
kesimpulan88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama kesimpulan88.net
kesimpulan88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama kesimpulan88.com
kapasitor88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama kapasitor88.net
kapasitor88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama kapasitor88.com
kacamata88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama kacamata88.net
kacamata88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama kacamata88.com
jamu88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama jamu88.info
jamu88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama jamu88.asia
jam88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama jam88.info
jam88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama jam88.asia
follow88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama follow88.org
follow88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama follow88.net
dinamo88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama dinamo88.net
dinamo88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama dinamo88.info
baterai88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama baterai88.net
baterai88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama baterai88.com
miegacoan permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama miegacoan.life
miegacoan permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama miegacoan.asia
gacoan permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama gacoan.org
gacoan permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama gacoan.asia
website88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama website88.org
waweb88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama waweb88.net
waweb88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama waweb88.com
translate88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama translate88.net
translate88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama translate88.com
tempur888 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama tempur888.info
tempur888 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama tempur888.asia
tambang99 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama tambang99.news
tambang99 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama tambang99.asia
support88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama support88.org
support88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama support88.net
support88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama support88.asia
sogoslot88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama sogoslot88.asia
siap88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama siap88.news
siap88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama siap88.asia
rog88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama rog88.asia
rog77 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama rog77.info
pt88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama pt88.info
pt88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama pt88.asia
pln88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama pln88.biz
pln88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama pln88.asia
oke99 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama oke99.asia
oke88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama oke88.asia
mining88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama mining88.org
livechat88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama livechat88.info
livechat88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama livechat88.asia
listrik88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama listrik88.org
listrik88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama listrik88.info
listrik88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama listrik88.asia
freeport88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama freeport88.net
freeport88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama freeport88.com
free88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama free88.org
free88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama free88.asia
domain88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama domain88.org
domain88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama domain88.asia
dokter888 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama dokter888.net
dokter888 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama dokter888.asia
bmkg88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama bmkg88.net
bmkg88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama bmkg88.com
asn88 permainan paling top dan garansi imbal balik hasil besar bersama asn88.org
